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Silviculture

Introduction

According to Toumey and Korstain, Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care and reproduction of stands of Timber. It is also defined as the "art and science of cultivating forest crops." Silviculture is not a purely biological science which has no relation with economics. Silviculture has been rightly described as an art and in this art intuition plays an important part. Silviculture is the combination of two common terms: Silvics and its practical application.

According to Indian forest and Forest product Terminology, Silvics is the study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees and crops with particular reference to environmental factors as the basis for the practice of Silviculture.

Thus silvics implies

It explains the natural law of their growth and development and their behavior in a given set of environmental conditions. The knowledge gathered in silvics is applied to the production and care of forest crops. Thus practice of Silviculture is the applied silvics.

Objects of study of Silviculture

The object of study and practice of Silviculture is to produce more useful and valuable forests to meet our multifarious requirements than nature would do. The study of silviculture helps in:

• Production of species of economic value.
• Production of larger volume per unit area.
• Production of quality timber.
• Reduction of rotation.
• Raising forest in blank areas.
• Creation of man made forests in place of natural forests.
• Introduction of exotics. 

Forestry is defined as theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources.

The tree and the forest

Plant may be classified into the following three categories: Herb, Shrub and Tree

Herb is defined as plant whose stem is always green and tender and height is usually not more than one meter. It is annual, biennial, or perennial. Shrub is defined as a woody perennial plant differing from a perennial herb in its persistent and woody stem and less definitely from a tree in its low stature (Size, tallness) and its habit of branching from the base. Height of the shrub is not more than six metres.

Forest Protection

Introduction:

Protection means shielding against something dangers which tend to destroy it.Thus forest protection means shielding forests against dangers which may either completely destroy it or at least damage it to such an extent that it may not to able to confer benefit it is expected to give.In other words,forest protection means branch of forestry which is concerned with the activities directed towards the prevention and control of damage to forest by man(including fire),animals,insects,fungi,injurious,plants and adverse climatic factors.

Entomology :It is the branch of biological sciences which deals with insects.The word is derived from two Greek words:Entomon-insects and logous-study.

Insect: It is the word derived from Latin word ‘insectum-to cut into’

Forest entomology :It is the branch of entomology dealing with tree insects.

Natural enemies:  These are predatory insects,nematodes,microbial,pathogens,such as bacteria,fungi,viruses,in maintaining another organisms at a lower average density than it would attain in their absence.

Predators: These are agents attack the pest externally and feed upon them there by reducing insect population.

Parasites: Many insects and non-insects parasites attack pests and feed upon their internal content ,the result is either weakening or killing of the prey.

Injury: Effect of insects activities on host physiology that is usually deleterious.

Damage: Measurable loss of host,mostly quantity ,quality or asthetics...

Forest Management

Unit 1: Definition and Scope of Forest Management

Definition:

Management of forest broadly involves three main tasks:

Scope of Forest M anagement:

The Scope of Forest Management is very extensive; it encompasses, broadly, the following main activities:

i.          Site adaptation                                    ii. Choice of species

iii.        Manipulation of stands           IV. Harvesting the produce

v.         Regeneration                           VI. Protection

Forest Utilization

Forest utilization is defined as the process of harvesting, conversion and disposal of standing produce of forest. It also includes the use of forest produce.

Its main branches are-

1 Extraction, felling, conversion and transport

2. Storage and marketing

3. Properties of wood, derived products, wood improvement and uses of wood.

The total volume of usable rough timber from the average tree is therefore only 37-52% depending on spps. region and local conditions.

Greatest wastage in felling & conversion in Himalayan coniferous forest such as fir (Abies pindrow), spruce (Picea smithiana), deodar and pines. The wastage in conversion of teak, Sal is generally small.

Forest produces

Major F.P such as timber, poles and firewood.

Minor F.P i.e. all F.P other than major (grasses, fruits, leaves, animal products, soil and minerals)

Farming System in Nepal

Farming system approach & linkage with A.F.

1. Based on the basis of season

2. On the basis of crop science:

Gram, pulcs, forage, root crops, fiber crop, tuber, sugarcane, oil crop, drugs, vegetable.

3. On the basis of area cultivation:

4. On the basis of life cycle:

          Annual, Biennial, Perrenial

5. On the basis of origine of crop:

          Local/national, Indigenous/exotic.

6. On the basis of special objectives:

Crop Combination

Hills -        Maize – lintel/field  peas

Eastern Terai Zone:

          Rice  -        Black gram/green gram

          Rice  -        Lintel/field pea

          Maize         -        Lintel/field pea

          Maize         -        Pigean pea

          Jute   -        Pea, black gram

          Jute   -        Rice

Central Terai Zone:

          Rice  -        Wheat, Rice – lintel, gram

          Rice -        Wheat

          Sugarcane- Dhania

          Jute   -        Maize, millet

          Maize         -        Millet, vegetable

Western Terai Zone:

          Rice  -        Wheat/mustard/gram

          Rice  -        Maize

          Maize         -        Vegetable

          Maize         -        Cotton

NTFP's In Agroforestry System

A lot of non timber forest products have been growing in forests and in farmers fields and having a lot of problems such as:

Reasons for this

Classification of NTFPs, based on their importance as current and potential foreign exchange earners.

Raw materials for craft:- Bamboos, cane, mulberrywood, floss of Kapok & Simal, Teak, Sissoo, Babiyo, Eucatypt for particle board & hardboard etc.

Fruits & nuts:- Mango, lichi, Guava, peach, pars, Apple, plumb, Banana, pineapple, kiwis, Rubus elipticus, chutro, chuletro, artocarpus spp., Jamun, morus, Kafal, Okhar, Katus,  Mahuwa, Churi etc.

Classification of Agroforestry

1. Structural classification

          A. nature of component

                   i. Agri-silvicultural systems

                   ii. Silvi pastural systems

                   iii. Agri-silvi pastural systems

                   iv. Agro-Horto silviculture systems

                   v. Others.

                             a. Multipurpose tree lots

                             b. Apiculture with tree

                             c. Aquaculture with tree

          B. Arrangement of components

                   - In space (special)

- Strip plantation

- Boundary plantation

2. Functional classification

          A. Productive – Production of food, fruits fuel, fodder, timber and other products.

          B. Protective- Protection of soil & water

                   - Protection of Environment

                   - Wind break

                   - Shelterbelt

                   - Hedgerow intercropping

                   - Cover crops etc.

3. Ecological classification:

          A. Based on individual ecological parameter

                   - Tropical

                   - Sub tropical

                   - Temperate

                   - Alpine

Agroforestry

Agroforestry

Historical perspective – Review

Eolithicage – man appeared on the earth one million years ago – lived is

dense forest, caves, under shade of trees, depends on entirely plant parts for food.

Paliolithic age – 30 thousand year ago – learned hunting of wild animal need

for food.

Neolithic age – 15000 years ago – discover fire for cooking

About 10,000 years ago discovered seed of certain grass could be used to eat.

Religious aspects of tree-

Ancient – practice

At the end of 18^th century – forest destroyed drastically – In same 18^th century started taungya in Burma (Menmar) by late British forester Sir Daitric Brandrs

In this system –    1920 Kerala India

                             1924 U.P. India

                             1925 M.P. India

                             1977 Nepal Bara Tamagarhi as Taungya

                             1986 Kapilbastu – Terai C.F.

                             19...  Sagarnath. 

Agroforestry in Wasteland for Livelihood to Rural People

The research entitled "Agroforestry in Wasteland for Livelihood to Rural People" was conducted in wasteland of Rautahat district with objectives to study the growth performance and fodder biomass productivity of Leucaena leucocephala and Melia azedirach,  root yield of zingiber officinalis (Zinger) and curcuma longa (Turmeric) and to assess the contribution of agroforestry products for livelihood to rural poor people. One hectare wasteland under high-tension line was allocated to 15 families, each getting 0.0677 ha. to cultivate zinger and Turmeric intercropping with fodder tree species. Growth performance and leaf biomass was recorded after one year of plantation. The average height was found 185.03 cm & 242.07 cm.; average leaf biomass 1.38 q/ha & 1.87 q/ha of Leucaena and Melia species respectively on dry matter basis. Fresh root yield of zinger and Turmeric was recorded as 54.55 q/ha, & 166.53 q/ha respectively. The maximum contribution of products Rs 4530.0 & 3612.0 from zinger and Turmeric to their livelihood.

Thus, it can be concluded that Agroforestry is a good means not only to reclaim wastelands but also provides goods and services which supports livelihood to rural economy.

Key word: Agroforestry, wasteland, growth, biomass, yield and livelihood.

Swaps - Type of Derivatives

A swap is a contract in which two parties agree to exchange cash flows. For example, one party is currently receiving cash from one investment but would prefer another type of investment in which the cash flows are different. The party contracts a swap dealer, a firm operating in an over-the-counter market, who takes the opposite side of the transaction. By swapping the cash flow, parties can receive the cash from another investment without actual buying  or selling. This helps to reduce transaction costs like brokerage commission on buying and selling.
An interest rate swap is a swap in which two parties agree to exchange a series of interest payments. Both sets of payment are made in same currency at various settlement dates based on a specific amount. This amount is known as national principal. The parties generally do not exchange principal amount since this would involve each party giving the other party the same amount of money.
A currency swap is a swap in which two parties agree to exchange a series of interest payments in difference currencies. Either or both sets of payments can be fixed or floating. A currency swap agreement requires the principal to be specified in each of the two currencies. The principal amounts are usually exchanged at the beginning and at the end of the life of the swap. Usually the principal amounts are chosen to be equivalent using the exchange rate at the swaps initiation.
An equity swap is a swap in which two parties agree to exchange a series of payments based on a specific national principal. In equity, at least one of the two streams of cash flows is determined by a stock price, the value of stock portfolio, or the level of stock index. The other stream of cash flows can be a fixed rate, a floating rate such a LIBOR, or it can also be determined by the value of another stock, stock portfolio or stock index.

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